War of 1812: The Eastern Shore and an Opportunity for Freedom

Article by Andre Nieto Jaime

British Raid On Chesapeake Bay in War Of 1812
Patuxent River Naval Air Station

On June 18th, 1812, tensions between the United States and Great Britain came to a head when President James Madison signed a declaration of war against Great Britain, starting what came to be known as the War of 1812. The nation was divided on the issue, with the declaration passing both houses of Congress by a rather slim margin: 79 to 49 in the House and 19 to 13 in the Senate. Nonetheless, the United States was heading to war and countless Americans answered the call to arms. This included African Americans, both enslaved and free, who fought valiantly for the nation in the hopes of achieving freedom. Others, decided to take a different risk: escaping with the British. The War of 1812 offered a chance for self-emancipation for African Americans, especially those on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, via the Chesapeake Bay. This opportunity was taken by thousands over the course of the war. 

The Chesapeake Bay was a major theatre in the War of 1812 due to its strategic significance. Not only did the Chesapeake give access to Washington D.C. via the Potomac River, but also other major cities like Baltimore. The bay also played an important role in the nation’s economy, serving as a significant trade hub and allowing the export of various goods like tobacco. The region was initially spared from conflict owing to distance from the British mainland, attempts to delay a major war, and Britain’s preoccupation with Napoleon. However, by early 1813 the British had begun establishing a naval presence in the bay and the American navy, consisting of nine frigates and eight small vessels at the start of the war, was outmatched. The Chesapeake was blockaded for the duration of the war.

'Operations against Baltimore & Washington August-September 1814.'
​National Army Museum, London. 

The Lower Eastern Shore too was a strategic location for both sides. The rivers and creeks that cut through the landscape, offered the British access to inland communities that were raided for supplies. In one letter to a London paper, the author wrote that “the country bordering the Chesapeake is very fine” and the supplies “brought to us from the shore” have been sustaining them. Somerset County often saw these incursions for provisions and to sabotage vessels, with one person writing to the paper that the British have repeatedly raided for “supplies of poultry, and cattle,” among other goods. Another commented that “the British were infesting our waters...are now up Pocomoke as high as Sykes Island and on shore there,” and that they will burn the vessels in Coulbourn’s creek as they had done with the vessels in the Little Annemessex.
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Other parts of Somerset County were also affected. Aside from establishing a Fort Albion on Virginia’s Tangier Island, the British also had some presence on Deal Island, called Devil’s Island at the time. On April 22nd, 1814, it was reported that 80 men under Captain James Watts had debarked at Devil’s Island. Thomas Riley was among the men when he deserted, fleeing to Princess Anne and divulged the positions of British ships in the Chesapeake Bay. A month later, Edward Coulbourn of Somerset County was on board the Jasseur when Captain Watts returned from Deal Island with livestock, likely appropriated from the locals. 

However, Americans on the Eastern Shore refused to be pushed around by the British. Despite being at a disadvantage militarily, Shoremen had greater knowledge of the area, allowing the average citizen to serve as a scout. When the enemy had begun entering the Pocomoke Sound, fishermen and island inhabitants began reporting to military leaders like General Handy of Worcester County.

Admiral Cockburn Burning & Plundering Havre De Grace
U.S. Army

Sunset at Deal Island

Rivers also could be turned into choke points, seen when Captain Jarvis of the Buzzi, a trading schooner, was chased into the Wicomico River in 1814. Captain Dashiel was able to organize 25 men from his artillery company with a 6 pounder to repel the British. Several shots were fired and the result was a British retreat. Then again in the Great Annamessex, it was reported that a British vessel had boarded a ship under the command of Captain George Davey and set it on fire. Captain Davey and his men responded by embarking on canoes with his men to attack. The men on the canoe and gathering militia fired upon the retreating British. Other reports in the same paper claim the Davey “had the presence of mind to make the negroes march down opposite them, with sticks shouldered as guns” to make it seem as if the militia was larger than it really was and fool the British into thinking they were surrounded. Despite going up against one of the world’s leading military powers of the time and initial losses, the eastern shore remained confident as “the people of the eastern shore of Maryland are full of spirit,” and the “poor wood dealers and oyster men” were unwilling to let the British have their way.

African Americans and slavery were also entangled in the war. Of course, there was Captain Davey who had allegedly ordered Black Americans, potentially enslaved, to march with sticks shouldered to mimic muskets. However, there were African Americans that served in active combat roles during the war as well, especially once the United States became desperate for manpower. Although they were almost entirely banned from serving, they did find their way into the fight. 

Getting off land and sailing the seas, bays, and lakes afforded Black men of the era greater opportunities and offered more reliable food, pay, and quarters. While not completely devoid of discrimination, the effects were less prevalent. Black sailors had been working offshore in the north in the years leading up to the war and when the war broke out, many of these men set sail to fight the British. For instance, George Roberts, a Baltimore native and free black man, was part of Captain Richard Moon’s privateer crew on the Sarah Ann when the war broke out. Within a few months, the schooner Sarah Ann was in battle against two British men-of-war and captured by a third. Roberts was imprisoned in the Caribbean, but released and went back to fighting the British aboard the Chasseur.

Portrait of George Roberts
1861
Z24.2560, Courtesy of The Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, MD.

While Roberts served as a privateer, others were able to join the U.S. Navy. At the outset of the war, official policy prevented African Americans from joining the U.S. Navy. However, the need for sailors led to relaxation of policy enforcement, allowing Black sailors to be recruited. On the USS Constitution, there were three identifiable Black men serving: Jesse Williams, James Bennett, and David Debias. Some estimates argue that 15-20% of the Navy was comprised of Black sailors during the War of 1812. While estimates are difficult to ascertain due to the Navy not recording the race of its sailors, anecdotal evidence shows that some vessels had higher proportions of Black sailors.

​The USS Constitution battling the British frigate HMS Guerriere during the War of 1812.
Yale University Art Gallery; Mabel Brady Garvan Collection (1946.9.434)

The enslaved also participated in the war in varying capacities. In some cases they were tasked with performing manual labor with free Black Americans to dig entrenchments in cities like New York and Baltimore. In other instances, they were recruited as soldiers. Despite the U.S. Army not officially accepting Black men into its ranks, the need for manpower caused them to overlook this and allowed Black Americans to fight. This included William Williams, an escaped slave from Maryland, who had a fugitive slave advertisement published by Benjamin Oden. Despite this, Williams was taken in and placed in the 38th U.S. Infantry. General Andrew Jackson also recruited enslaved men to fight at the Battle of New Orleans where they fought hoping that their sacrifice would guarantee their freedom. It did not.

The British on the other hand, offered more earnest guarantees of freedom for the enslaved. When the British first arrived in the Chesapeake in 1813, they were instructed to protect any slave that had helped the British or were in danger, but were not to go as far encouraging any revolts or escape. However, once the British were firmly established in the Chesapeake, Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane changed this policy. In April, 1814, he issued a proclamation stating that “all those who may be disposed to emigrate from the United States,” and their families will be welcomed by the British with a choice of military service or relocation as free settlers in other colonies. While not directly calling on the enslaved to escape, the decision to specify free settlers as opposed to just writing settlers makes it clear that slaves were the intended audience.

Free Men of Colour and Choctaw Indian Volunteers at New Orelans
1982
H. Charles McBarron

William Williams
NPS/Keith Rocco

Colonial Marine
NPS/Don Troiani

The British had several reasons to encourage and facilitate the escape of enslaved African Americans. First, the South was economically dependent on slave labor on large plantations for cash crops like tobacco and cotton. Smaller farmers also made use of slave labor, although in much smaller numbers. Depriving the South of its labor force had the potential to cripple not only their economy, but also harm their supply chain. After Cochrane’s proclamation, the British conducted several raids in the area that resulted in the liberation of several enslaved individuals. In April 1814, they landed in Virginia and raided the estates of a Dr. Carter and Joseph C. Cabell, leaving with around 70 African Americans. The Virginia Argus claimed that their objectives were “evidentally negroes and provisions,” suggesting that Americans felt that the British were specifically seeking out enslaved individuals during these raids. 

The effects of these raids were felt by slave holders like the inhabitants of St. Simon’s. One witness wrote to the paper explaining how an attack has affected the community economically. They exclaimed that “James Hamilton will be ruined,” losing control over those he kept enslaved and having his store pillaged along with all his cotton. Several other individuals were included, but all of them listed the loss of slaves first among their property loss, suggesting that what they considered the most devastating loss.  

The second reason enabling the escape of enslaved African Americans was to enhance their manpower. Offering freedom in exchange for service provided a pool of manpower that had better knowledge of the area than soldiers from other parts of the British Empire. Additionally, these men had and a great motivation to fight for freedom. The British were seemingly pleased with these new soldiers, organized into the Colonial Marines. One letter published in a London paper describes the fortification of Tangier Island by the British and over 500 African Americans that had been trained, clothed, and armed. Their performance in battle earned the British’s “highest confidence” and praise. Thus, America’s loss was Britain’s gain. 

Fort Albion Historic Marker
J. J. Prats/ Historical Marker Database

Several individuals from Somerset County made the dangerous choice of escaping to the British. Proximity to Tangier Island and patrolling British ships may have encouraged them to make their move. This could have been the case for three African Americans escaping from general John Gale and Edward Coulbourn. In 1814, shortly after Cochrane’s proclamation, three African Americans escaped from Gale, who was marked as deceased when the paper was printed, and Edward Coulbourn. These three men can be identified as David Gales, Nathan Gales and Robert Coulbourn. They reportedly stole a canoe and used it to board the Jasseur. Edward Coulbourn got permission to board the ship and attempted to retrieve the escaped men, but was told that the three were sent to Tangier Island. Coulbourn was reportedly told that even if they were still on board, they could not be returned without orders from the admiral and that the three men had to be willing to return. Coulbourn was forced to return empty handed. David and Robert went on to fight in the British Colonial Marines and Nathan could have as well, given his young age.

These escapes via the waterways must have been common enough to spark fear among the militia and slave holders. One writer to the editor of The Star, based in Easton, wrote of orders to bring canoes out of the water and to gather them together to be guarded. This policy was described as being extremely unpopular by the writer, who explained that this intrusive action deprived the watermen of their way of life. It was also seen as a futile attempt to prevent the enslaved from escaping due to how many different creeks and rivers cut through the landscape. Even the militia "complained bitterly" about having to keep watch over the canoes. The British strategy of taking in runaway slaves was yielding fruit and sowed fear among slave holders. This exodus was perceived as enough of a threat by Americans to warrant gathering canoes and wasting precious manpower guarding them, manpower that could have been put to better use keeping watch for the British. 

After the war, Edward Coulbourn filed a claim with the State of Maryland for compensation for the loss of his slave Robert, or “Bob” as Coulbourn called him. A man named John P. Gale also filed a claim for the loss of two slaves named Nathan and David that were not his own. Administration of the estate of John Gale appears to have been left to John P. Gale, perhaps his son, in 1816. Further confusing the matter is the fact that John P. Gale was filing the claim on the grounds that the slaves were property of his deceased mother.

Joseph Handy was another claimant from Somerset County. Handy claims that Levin escaped around October, 1814 to a British vessel in Tangier Sound and taken on board. Others, including Edward Coulbourn, corroborated Handy’s claim with their own testimonies. One man, Benjamin Bedsworth, testified that in November he was on Tangier Island in November and spotted Levin in British ranks and uniform. Bedsworth stated that he conversed with Levin, asking if he “was willing to return to his master” and claims that Levin replied that he was willing, “but having enlisted in the British service and having on the British uniform” prevented him from doing so. Bedsworth also claims to have seen those formerly enslaved to Isaac Beachamp and Edward Coulbourn. In the end, Maryland refused to pay Handy’s claim since Levin was sent to Georgia by the British and it was determined payment falls to Georgia.

Not all that made attempts to escape were successful. Many were caught on the way, including five escaping from Major H.J. Carroll. One man got lost and was caught the following day while the others were captured by fishermen days later. Even those who did successfully escape to fight with the British still had to survive the war. 
The escape of the enslaved to the British sparked resentment from slave holders, who denounced the “old practice of negro stealing” as “so foreign to the usages of honorable warfare and so unjust and oppressive,” or in other words; dishonorable. The anger that some Americans felt from seeing a Black man in British uniform caused at least one to be specifically targeted in a skirmish. On the Eastern Shore of Virginia, the British had entered Pamgoteaugue Creek where 30 militia men began retreating to a different position. However, it was reported that “the audacity of a negro in uniform, perhaps a captain or colonel in ‘his majesty’s service’” led to a private receiving permission to stop and fire at the man, killing him.

Political broadside depicting the burning of Washington and satirizing British emancipation offers
c. 1814
American Antiquarian Society

Despite the dangers of war, many African Americans fighting on the side of the British did survive. The guarantees of freedom offered to them by British were honored and they were resettled in other parts of the British Empire, including a few from Somerset County. In October, 1814, Elijah Beauchamp and his brother Stephen escaped from Thomas Beauchamp’s farm with another slave named Jack Teagle. At the same Mentor Beauchamp escaped from Isaac Beauchamp and they all boarded the Regulus in Tangier Sound. Elijah, Stephen, and Mentor served in the Colonial Marines for the duration of the war. Afterwards, they were resettled in Trinidad on land given to them and their families as a reward for their service.
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The War of 1812 was brought to an official conclusion with the Treaty of Ghent, which had terms for compensation of lost American property. However, an issue was raised over slavery. The treaty stated that “any slaves or other private property” should be returned, if it was practicable. The issue was debated for years until the Russian Tsar was allowed to mediate. Tsar Alexander ruled in favor of the U.S. and Britain begrudgingly paid up. In Maryland, there were 712 claims filed and each slave was given the average value of $280. As a nation, some estimates claim that over 4,000 enslaved women, men, and children escaped under British protection.

When examining the Chesapeake Bay during the War of 1812, it is easy to overlook the Eastern Shore in favor of focusing on Fort McHenry, Baltimore, and Washington. Yet, the Eastern Shore was deeply involved on many levels and has a rich history to uncover pertaining to the war. African Americans also played important roles on both sides of the conflict. People like George Roberts and William Williams fought heroically for the nation and its values. Many African Americans fighting on the American side hoped their courage and sacrifices would afford them better treatment or even lead to freedom for the enslaved. Then there were those individuals who decided to liberate themselves when the opportunity presented itself. The decision to join the British in return for freedom was not one of cowardice or betrayal. It was a choice of self-preservation and self-emancipation for themselves and their families. One that offered a more secure and promising future for their families given the circumstances in the United States. The enslaved and free African Americans had shown a willingness to fight for the U.S. If given the opportunity to serve in exchange for freedom, perhaps those joining the British would have fought for the U.S. like those at New Orleans did. Instead of waiting to be freed, they decided to free themselves. 

References:

Primary:

Admiral Cochrane’s proclamation. Commissioner of Public Records.  RG 1 volume 111 pages 99-100 (microfilm 15262). Nova Scotia Archives, Halifax, Nova Scotia. https://archives.novascotia.ca/africanns/archives/?ID=70&Page=200402138. 

"Blockade of the Chesapeake." Niles' Weekly Register. April 30, 1814.

"To the Editor of the Star." Republican Star and General Advisor. April 25, 1814.

"To the Editor of the Star." Republican Star and General Advisor. June 11, 1814.

"To the Editor of the Star." Virginia Argus. June 11, 1814. 

"Extract of a Letter from Gen. Handy, of Worcester County, to Gen. Benson, dated Snow Hill, May 29." Virginia Argus. June 10, 1813.  

"From the Enemy in Our Waters." Virginia Argus, May 4, 1814. 

'From the Virginia Patriot." Virginia Argus. May 4, 1814. 

The Morning Chronicle. October 26, 1814.

“Naval.” Niles’ Weekly Registe.  June 11, 1814.

“Negro Stealing.” Niles' Weekly Register. March 4, 1815.

PROCLAMATION OF VICE ADMIRAL SIR ALEXANDER F.I. COCHRANE, R.N., 2 April, 1814,  American Battlefield Trust. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/alexander-cochrane-proclamation. 

Research and Educational Projects at the Maryland State Archives, Claims Under the first article of the Treaty of Ghent. msa_sc_5339_243_2-0093. Maryland State Archives.  

Research and Educational Projects at the Maryland State Archives, Claims Under the first article of the Treaty of Ghent. msa_sc_5339_243_2-0096. Maryland State Archives. 

Research and Educational Projects at the Maryland State Archives.
msa_sc_5339_243_1-0001. Maryland State Archives. Annapolis, Maryland.

Research and Educational Projects at the Maryland State Archives, Claims Under the first article of the Treaty of Ghent. msa_sc_5339_243_2-0194. Maryland State Archives.

Treaty of Ghent (1814), Milestone Documents. National Archives, Washington D.C. https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-ghent. 

Secondary:

Archives of Maryland Biographical Series, Elijah Beauchamp Biography, War of 1812 Escaped Slave, Somerset County, Maryland, 1814, MSA SC 5496-050826, Maryland State Archives, Annapolis, MD. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5400/sc5496/050800/050826/html/050826bio.html 

Brodine Jr., Charles E. "War Visits the Chesapeake." Naval History, (October 2014). U.S. Naval Institute. 

Cox, Ryan. Archives of Maryland Biographical Series, George R. Roberts, War of 1812 Sailor, MSA SC 5496-51750. Maryland State Archives, Annapolis, MD. 

Cutler, Thomas J. "Growing Pains for the U.S. Navy: The War of 1812." Naval History, (April 2024). U.S. Naval Institute. https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2024/april/growing-pains-us-navy-war-1812

Gordon, Skyler. “Enslaved Soldiers and the Battle of New Orleans.” Tennessee Historical Society. January 4, 2018. https://tennesseehistory.org/battle-of-new-orleans/


Hegranes, Emily. “Segregation in the Navy: A Brief History from the War of 1812 Through World War II.” Naval History 35, no. 1 (February 2021). U.S. Naval Institute. 

Hollander, Craig B. “‘The Citizen Complains’: Federal Compensation for Property Lost in the War of 1812.” Law and History Review 38, no. 4 (2020): 659-98.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/27036904. 
Kelly, William F. "Black Freedom during the War of 1812: From the Chesapeake, Cumberland Island, and Beyond Part 1." National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/black-freedom-seeking-during-the-war-of-1812-from-the-chesapeake-cumberland-island-and-beyond-part-1.htm 

Malcomson, Thomas . “Freedom by Reaching the Wooden World: American Slaves and the British Navy During the War of 1812.” The Northern Mariner Le Marin Du Nord 22, no. 4. (2012): 361–392. https://doi.org/10.25071/2561-5467.294

Maryland State Archives. "AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE WAR OF 1812." African Americans. https://msa.maryland.gov/msa/mdstatehouse/war1812/html/afam_war.html

McCormack, Lauren. "Black Sailors During the War of 1812." Revised by Kate Monea and Carl Herzog. USS Constitution Museum ​(2020). 1-17. https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Black-Sailors-During-the-War-of-1812.pdf 

National Park Service. "Southern Maryland." https://www.nps.gov/stsp/learn/historyculture/southern-maryland.htm

National Park Service. "War in the Chesapeake." https://www.nps.gov/stsp/learn/historyculture/chesapeake-at-war.htm

National Park Service. "William Williams." Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine, Star-Spangled Banner National Historic Trail. https://www.nps.gov/people/william-williams.htm 

Percoco, ​James A. "The British Corps of Colonial Marines: African Americans Fight for their Freedom." American Battlefield Trust. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/british-corps-colonial-marines. 

Smith, Gene Allen. "Wedged Between Slavery and Freedom: African American Equality Deferred." National Park Service.
https://www.nps.gov/articles/wedged-between-slavery-and-freedom.htm#:~:text=they%20remained%20free.-,In%20the%20end%2C%20the%20War%20of%201812%20did%20not%20provide,between%20race%20discrimination%20and%20egalitarianism.

United States Senate. "Declaration of War with Great Britain, 1812." Declarations of War.
​https://www.senate.gov/about/images/documents/war-of-1812-senate-amendments.htm

U.S. Capitol Visitor Center. "House Declaration of War, June 4, 1812, with Senate Amendments, June 17, 1812." Artifact Explorer. 
​https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/artifact/house-declaration-war-june-4-1812-senate-amendments-june-17-1812